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Contextual Literature Review

1. Historical Treatment of Disability

In the context of extensive and complex social interactions, disability is often understood as a social status that is inextricably linked to social identity (Darling, 2013), partly reflecting social values and prejudices. During the Victorian period, disability was often labeled as economic inefficiency, as people's productivity and good physical strength were often seen as social indicators during the Industrial Revolution (Bergen, 2004). The establishment and operation of the workhouse provide a good reflection for understanding this.

1.1 Treatment and Care of Disabled Inmates

Numerous studies have shown critical insights towards the treatment of disabled people in Victorian workhouses, from an identical perspective that the disabled population dramatically suffered from neglect and then systematic abuse (Oliver and Barnes, 2013; Turner and Blackie, 2018). Firstly, the treatment and care of disabled inmates have been always a commonly discussed topic among scholars. For example, Wright (2000) demonstrates that the medical facilities in the workhouse were extremely poor and did not provide practical medical care for people with disabilities or mental illnesses, but rather used a controlled approach to suppress superficial symptoms. In addition, the system of care in the workhouses has been heavily questioned as it was often staffed by female inmates who were physically challenged, alcoholics, and elderly (Ritch, 2015). Secondly, some other scholars criticized the labor exploitation of disabled inmates in the workhouses. For example, Blackie and Turner (2018) assert that the operation of the workhouses can be overwhelmingly understood as enforcing discipline rather than providing meaningful work opportunities to inmates, and that, in particular, people with disabilities are often forced to perform unsuitable manual labor despite their physical impairments; and that the punitive and exploitative job content is clearly lacking in appropriate consideration of the abilities of individuals with disabilities. Brundage (1994) then shows that vulnerable groups such as the disabled and the elderly are victims of the tyranny of the institution, yet injuries, the worsening of existing illnesses, and the onset of chronic illnesses are major drawbacks in their lives of forced labor in the institution.

1.2 Societal Attitudes Reflected in Workhouse Policies

The issue of moral stigmatization has been taken into consideration as disabled people in Victorian workhouses were often seen as a burden to society as their physical impairments were seen as a sign of moral failure (Williams, 2020). For example, firstly physical and mental deficiencies were often seen as moral failures or divine punishment; this belief allowed disabled inmates to be often stigmatized and isolated in the workhouse. In addition, because the low productive capacity of vulnerable groups such as the disabled and mentally ill ran counter to the social values of the time, which were oriented towards working capacity, they were not only minimally sheltered in the institutions, but also brutally marginalized with the goal of minimizing economic costs (Simon, 2013). Secondly, segregation policies for disabled individuals further evoke the previous perspective. For example, they are either forcibly assigned to physical tasks beyond their capacity or excluded from work altogether, which further marginalizes them in prisons; this stigmatization leads to harsher treatment of the disabled population in institutions, as well as little or no sympathy or substantial help (Walker, 2008).Thus, it can be seen that the unfair treatment of vulnerable groups such as people with disabilities in Victorian workhouses was multifaceted: while there was a lack of expertise in care and a lack of attention to the well-being of inmates with disabilities, the exploitative labour reflected a lack of understanding and empathy for disability; at the same time, the marginalization of inmates with disabilities was exacerbated.

2. Comparison of Economic Systems

The capitalist framework affects the rights and opportunities of persons with disabilities. Under the capitalist framework, labour is seen as a source of value, and people with disabilities are often excluded from economic value because their physical make-up and abilities are incompatible with the demands of the labour process. Galer (2012) and Irvine (2017) both highlight the influence of capitalism on the identity formation and employment of individuals with disabilitie. Disability is a fluid category under capitalism, changing in response to shifts in labour demand and economic austerity (Matthews, 2021).Historical analysis shows diverse providers of welfare policies. In the Victorian era, social welfare was partly provided by the Church and certain institutions (Matthews, 2021). In contrast, contemporary capitalism relies primarily on state welfare policies, aiming to redefine disability based on labor market demands and capital accumulation needs. These policies are more inclusive, diversifying disability definitions according to labor market demands (Matthews, 2021). However, under the capitalist system, all individuals living within environments characterized by capitalist exploitation and oppression, mental disabilities are equally prevalent among all groups experiencing physical disabilities or mental anguish (Chis, 2023).Regarding the shifting perceptions of disability in the UK, exploitative dynamics have shifted from overt to covert. Policies aimed at increasing disabled employment suggest societal recognition of their capabilities, yet exploitatively rooted in wage-mediated relations (Chis, 2023; Dixon et al., 2018). Despite societal advancements, there's been no tangible improvement in social security systems for the disabled; in some cases, they've worsened.In summary, the core and fundamental reproduction of capitalist social relations, emphasizing the perpetual oppression and exploitation faced by the disabled community. Over the past decade, the British government has redefined disability, aiming to integrate disabled individuals into the labor force reserve (Matthews, 2021).

3. Social impacts and personal narratives

Current disability research provides a critical theoretical perspective for understanding the experiences of exclusion of disabled people from the Victorian era to the present day. The social model of disability assumes that disability is associated with being constructed by the way society is organised (Owens, 2014). “Society is created by and for non-disabled people, and anyone who cannot fit into the model is defined as disabled” (Barnes, 2007, p.216). In this state of affairs, the degree of social engagement of disabled people has nothing to do with the physical abilities of disabled people and everything to do with ‘the social structures, institutions, and attitudes that prohibit them from fitting in’ (Oliver, 2013, p.1025). During the Victorian period (1830s-1930s), due to the popularity of eugenics, disability was increasingly associated with family threats, national decline and a culture of shame (Andree, 2016). Ignoring disabled people or labelling them as morally corrupt became the dominant attitude towards disabled people at the time (Starkowski, 2014). ‘Normal’ bodies represented a normative way of participating in democratic politics and British society. Nowadays, whilst the disabled community has made significant progress in terms of equal rights of access to public resources, such as employment and housing, the process of enforcing these rights is often precarious and accompanied by prejudices about disability (Priestley, 2000). Compared to the Victorian era, society's policies towards individuals with disabilities have changed considerably in the 21st century.... Empowerment of people with disabilities has improved in various areas (Neath and Schriner, 2010). However research has also shown that people with disabilities are actively demanding their equal participation in social production as individuals and are no longer the ones who are being handed power. This is a reflection of human-based values, but this work undoubtedly requires 'more understanding efforts' (Oliver, 2013, p.1027).
From the Victorian era to the present day, the social stigma and systemic oppression of disability has been perpetuated. Welfare policies and services have shaped positive discourses about the personal worth and well-being of disabled people as a mitigating mechanism, but social support for disabled people maintains hierarchies that serve able-bodied and power-dominated groups by promoting ableist norms. Disabled people remain in a vulnerable position relegated to the power system. ‘Inclusive language has a long way to go if it is to be more than empty rhetoric’ (Barnes, 2007, p.213).

Characters

John

My name is John, and I lived during the Victorian era. I am a visually impaired individual. Not long ago, I was apprehended and taken to the workhouse, treated as a "prisoner." There, I endured relentless exploitation and abuse by the administrators day and night. It was nothing short of a deceitful scheme.

Jane

My name is Jane and I live in the modern 21st century as a wheelchair user with a leg disability and an advocate for disability rights. I have witnessed how the treatment of disabled people has improved in contemporary times, but is limited by the logic of how capitalist society works.

Stories

"In the suffocating confines of the workhouse, where the stench of untreated illness and damp stone walls pervades, we, the disabled, are relegated to the most neglected quarters. Overcrowded and underfunded, our living conditions are a direct result of a society that values human life based on economic productivity rather than inherent dignity."

"Each day, our labor is extracted as a testament to the workhouse’s ethos: that our worth is measured solely by our economic output. Blind, I am tasked with rope picking—mindless, grueling work meant to transform my body’s labor into a profitable commodity for the workhouse, regardless of the pain it causes me."

"Isolation marks our daily existence. Viewed as economic liabilities, we are hidden away, our suffering a silent byproduct of a capitalist ethos that deems us unworthy of public consideration or compassion."

"The infirmary, a place of last resort, mirrors the workhouse’s philosophy: minimal expense on those not deemed profitable. Our treatments are rudimentary and sparing, focused more on keeping us alive enough to work than on addressing our health needs comprehensively."

"In the workhouse, we are voiceless, our rights non-existent as we are viewed more as burdens than citizens. Any notion of advocacy is met not just with resistance but with punishment, our oppressors upheld by laws that reflect and reinforce our marginalization."

"Today, I live in a specially adapted apartment with technologies designed to aid my daily life. Though laws now mandate certain levels of accessibility, the quality and availability of such accommodations vary widely, reflecting capitalism's uneven attention to who can afford to pay for dignity and who cannot."

"As a software developer, I contribute productively and lucratively to my company. However, the journey here was fraught with barriers, not in finding work but in finding employers who would accommodate and value my skills over my disability. The capitalist market may reward my labor now, but many disabled individuals are still seen as less desirable employees due to the perceived cost of their accommodations."

"Visibility has improved; I engage actively in advocacy and public speaking. Yet, beneath the surface, subtle discriminations persist—social invitations are declined, professional networks remain inaccessible. Capitalism's selective inclusivity often rewards those who can 'overcome' their disabilities, sidelining those who cannot."

"Advancements in medical technology have revolutionized care, yet access is uneven. The best treatments are often expensive, gated by insurance and income levels, a reflection of a healthcare system still deeply entrenched in capitalist priorities. Those without means suffer poorer health outcomes, a modern echo of past neglect."

We found that legislative progress through bills such as the ADA is transformative, but every victory requires vigilance to prevent backsliding. Our rights remain very limited in all areas, as progress on our rights often depends on public and political goodwill, which fluctuates with economic currents. Advocacy therefore remains crucial, as capitalism does not naturally favour inclusiveness, but rather profit.

PART 1: Victorian Poorhouses and Abuse of the Disabled

Under the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601), local parishes were responsible for the relief of the poor, which included the disabled. The Act went some way to recognising the various needs of the poor, including the disabled, who might receive alms or other forms of assistance to enable them to live within their own communities. However, the dramatic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent enactment of the New Poor Law of 1834 and the subsequent expansion of almshouses were motivated by a desire to reduce the financial burden of helping the poor, with little regard for the particular needs or rights of disabled inmates, and where economic considerations could take precedence over human dignity and care. Almshouses were designed to be punitive rather than supportive.

A wide range of disabilities existed in the Victorian era, from physical impairments to sensory, intellectual and neurological disorders. Many of these disabilities were caused by the harsh living and working conditions of the Industrial Revolution. It is worth noting that the term 'disability' was not used until recently and much of the language used in the Victorian era now seems offensive. The networked graph presents the Victorian social categorisation of disability groups and the practice of this categorisation model by the Poorhouse as the authoritative admission institution of the time. Each disability category was given a different contemptuous term, and they were interrelated and intertwined. We took a chapter from the Knaresborough Workhouse Daybook on the long-term inmates and found that they were categorized into different disability categories and contemptuous terms. The contemptuous terms reflect the stigmatization of individuals with disabilities at the time of the workhouse, and especially in British society, where capitalism was developing at a rapid rate. Multiple stigmatizations may be given to the same disabled individual, and multiple disabled individuals may in turn be stigmatized in the same label. A logic of internalized stigmatization of disabled individuals may arise in this situation: disabled individuals themselves imply labeled prejudice, and prejudice can also refer to disabled individuals. This graphic aims to illustrate that the social stigma of disability contains stereotypes, prejudices and strong exclusions, revealing the systemic logic of social norms and institutions that oppress persons with disabilities.

Meanwhile, in the Victorian workhouse, living conditions were extremely poor. The working environment lacked comfort and men and women were strictly separated. Husbands were separated from their wives and parents from their children. Punitive and violent measures were severe. Women were forced to do manual labor, while men were assigned to chop wood or grind corn. Disabled people lacked normal welfare benefits and were forcibly segregated or subjected to ill-treatment, which was reflected in the texts they wrote. We have found and examined a selection of letters from disabled inmates of workhouses and people outside poorhouses in England between 1830 and 1860. We extracted a number of key words by frequency of occurrence and made a word cloud of them. Words such as “vermin” highlight the neglect and abuse of disabled people in the poorhouse, including bullying and poor quality of care.
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It can be seen that in the 19th century, Victorian workhouses embodied social indifference and moralistic attitudes towards poverty, disability and mental illness, reflecting the failure of wider society to recognise their basic human dignity.

Part 2: Critical Analysis of the Current Situation of Disabled Individuals

An estimated 16.0 million people in the UK had a disability in 2021/22. This represents 24% of the total population. The prevalence of disability rises with age: around 11% of children were disabled, compared with 23% of working age adults and 45% of adults over State Pension age. Mobility is the most frequently reported impairment type (47%), followed by stamina, breathing or fatigue (35%), and mental health(32%).

In recent years, governments have endeavored to improve the treatment of disabled individuals. For instance, the governments of the United Kingdom, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, as well as local authorities, have been committed to supporting disabled people's right to independent living choices and control. The Equality Act 2010 applies to Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland), while the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 applies to Northern Ireland. These policies reflect the needs and experiences of disabled individuals across the UK, emphasizing best practices and initiatives in various regions, thereby providing opportunities for mutual learning between different areas.

However, despite these efforts, a series of data indicates that the reality for disabled individuals is not as optimistic as described earlier. Therefore, this article will conduct a critical analysis of various aspects of the current situation of disabled individuals, including welfare benefits, education, employment, and living standards, to reveal the level of societal support for disabled individuals and the challenges that exist.

1. Contemporary Disability Welfare Benefits:

Disability benefits encompass three schemes managed by the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), aimed at assisting individuals in covering additional expenses related to health issues and disabilities, namely Disability Living Allowance (DLA), Personal Independence Payment (PIP), and Attendance Allowance (AA).

Over time, the number of individuals entitled to receive disability benefits in the UK has been steadily increasing. The number of disability benefit cases can indicate the trend in the prevalence of disabilities. It has risen from 3.9 million people (6.8% of the total population) in May 2002 to 6.3 million people (9.6% of the total population) by February 2023.

While this series of measures may appear to represent significant progress in safeguarding the welfare of disabled individuals and fostering a more enlightened attitude towards them, the fundamental framework of capitalism continues to exert influence on welfare policies, leaving them still ensnared in the fate of being relegated to the bottom rungs of capitalist society. However, a series of contradictory data can mutually attest to the discrepancy between disability welfare policies and the actual situation.

1.1 Rigorous Policy Evaluation

As depicted in the graph, disability population statistics provide us with the foundation for assessing societal inclusivity and equality.Although it is important to note that not every person who is considered disabled under the Equality Act claims or qualifies for a disability benefit. Although the UK has a wide-ranging disability benefits system, only 9.6% of the total population claims extra-cost benefits, which may point to problems of benefit accessibility or difficulties in identifying disability.

1.2 Welfare Reform and Austerity Measures

Recent UK welfare reforms and austerity measures have had a profound impact on disabled people. In particular, those reforms involving eligibility criteria and the assessment process have caused many disabled people to lose their old welfare support. This has not only increased the difficulties of their lives, but may also have serious negative impacts on their health and wellbeing.
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The criteria for Personal Independence Payment (PIP) have undergone significant adjustments, leading to the loss of this welfare support for many disabled individuals. The new assessment standards are more stringent, imposing higher demands on disabled individuals' abilities to carry out daily living activities. Additionally, the Income and Support Test (IST) within the welfare system has been strengthened, resulting in limitations on benefit disbursements. This poses a considerable challenge for numerous low-income disabled individuals, as they often face disqualification from benefits due to slightly higher incomes, exacerbating their financial hardships. Furthermore, the assessment process for disability benefits has become increasingly complex, with the introduction of private assessment entities resulting in stricter and potentially unfair evaluation processes. The implementation of digital assessment systems, while enhancing efficiency and accuracy, presents significant challenges for disabled individuals unfamiliar with digital technology, necessitating additional assistance and guidance.

**2. Education and employment of disabled people in Britain today ‍**

In terms of education, the data show that the proportion of disabled people with a degree or equivalent qualification increased by 1.9 percentage points in 2021. This increase reflects an increase in the level of degree attainment over time and is consistent with the continuing decline in the proportion of disabled people without qualifications. Educational upgrading is critical to improving employment prospects, although in terms of employment rates, people with disabilities continue to face significant employment challenges.

Key labor market statistics for the period January-March 2023 for disabled and non-disabled people aged 16-64 in the UK. As can be seen from the chart: the employment rate for disabled people (53.7%) is significantly lower than for non-disabled people (82.7%).

The unemployment rate is slightly higher for persons with disabilities (6.2%) than for persons without disabilities (3.4%). In terms of the economic inactivity rate, it was significantly higher for persons with disabilities (42.7%) than for persons without disabilities (14.3%).

These data clearly reveal that, even to this day, employment opportunities for disabled individuals remain disadvantaged in the market. The significant difference in the rate of economic inactivity is of particular interest because it may point to a range of barriers, such as the difficulties that persons with disabilities may encounter in finding, maintaining, or participating in employment.

3. Contemporary Disability Living Experience:‍

3.1 When shopping or getting about

2 in 5 disabled people had experienced difficulties shopping around for products or services, with reported barriers including a lack of appropriate facilities (16%), difficulty using public transport (15%), and difficulty moving around premises (13%).

3.2 When accessing public services online

When tested in September 2020, the websites of nine of the 10 most populated English county councils did not meet accessibility standards.

3.3 In feeling connected to others

Disabled people are more than 3 times more likely than non-disabled people to often or always feel lonely, with wellbeing rates for disabled people consistently lower than for non-disabled people. Disabled people more often indicated that the impact of the pandemic had affected their well-being more than non-disabled people. The disparity in wellbeing and loneliness between disabled and non-disabled people has not improved since 2013 to 2014. When it comes to basic rights like the right to be safe from harm, disabled people are disproportionately affected by crime. Disabled adults are more likely to be victims of crime (20.8%) than other adults (19.0%), and disabled children aged 10 to 15 (12.0%) are almost twice as likely to be victims of crime than other children (6.3%).

These data illustrate that throughout history and in the present, disabled individuals continue to face numerous challenges and unfair treatment. They reveal the inadequacy of welfare policies and employment opportunities within the framework of capitalism, as well as a significant lack of understanding, respect, and support for the rights and needs of disabled individuals in society. This reflects a societal marginalization and neglect of vulnerable groups, necessitating profound reflection and systemic improvement to achieve genuine inclusivity and fairness.

1.How did legal and social reforms from the Victorian era to the present impact the treatment and societal perceptions of disabled individuals?

What Changed? Once upon a time, the law said being poor and disabled meant you were out of luck and out of sight in places like workhouses. Nowadays, laws like the Disability Discrimination Act have kicked in doors, making room for rights and respect of disabled individuals. But hey, we're not at the finish line yet—capitalism still loves to count coins over compassion, keeping us on our toes.

2.What can the experiences documented in the Knaresborough Workhouse teach us about current challenges faced by disabled individuals in society? If yes, how? If not, then why? (Capitalism, again?)

What Can the Previous Document Teach Us? Those shadowy halls of the Knaresborough Workhouse? They're more than just creepy—they're telling. They show us how the "out of sight, out of mind" attitude from back then is still peeking around corners today, especially when profits and disabilities mix.

3.How do welfare policies in contemporary capitalism compare with the welfare provisions for disabled people in the Victorian era in terms of adequacy and inclusivity?

Better or Just Different? Victorian workhouses were the pits, and today’s welfare is light years ahead, but it’s not all sunshine and rainbows. Policies like PIP mean well but sometimes end up playing gatekeeper rather than helper. Looks like we've swapped old chains for red tape!

4.What role does digital media play in shaping contemporary understandings of the historical treatment of disability?

How Are We Digging Up History? Dive deep into our digital methodologies:
Data Integration and Visualization: We’ve captured and manually integrated data from resources like UK.GOV, analyzing trends that paint today’s disability landscape. Using AI technologies from platforms like Runway, Canva, and Flourish, we've created dynamic visualizations and GIFs that bring stark numbers to life.Historical Document Analysis: Consulting the Knaresborough Workhouse Daybook, we've meticulously recorded the names, working hours, and conditions of disabled inmates, alongside the frequency of derogatory terms used, to sketch a vivid picture of past prejudices.Utilizing digital means to analyze data from different time periods and various types isn't solely about retrospective examination; it's about forward-thinking—pondering how to leverage our findings to propel change.We love to dive into the old things, especially the digitization of historical data, which is like taking a ride in a time machine. Old things are not just a record of history, but they empower us in the present. They connect the past to the present and help us understand why we need to keep pushing for change.

Hints for Further Study

Looking ahead, there’s much more to explore. Future studies could use similar digital methodologies to examine other historical periods or global contexts, comparing how different cultures have treated disabled individuals. Additionally, further research could explore the impact of recent advancements in digital accessibility on disabled communities, potentially leading to more inclusive technologies.

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Thursday 3

Parallel Lives

Welcome to "Parallel Lives"